Keynesian Economic Policies and Its Effective Implementation During Research Paper

Keynesian Economic Policies and Its Effective Implementation During the Golden Age - Research Paper Example The increase in the level of liquidity in the economy resulted in increased production of goods thereby leading to higher GDP growth rates. The end of golden age prompted policymakers to resort to monetarist economic policies. Keynesian economic policies and its effective implementation during the Golden Age According to Keynes’ economic theory, the expenditure of one person leads to an income of another person. The purchase of goods and services from one person leads to the expense of another person. This expense results in the earnings of the person that has sold the goods or services. According to Keynes, this is the underlying theory for a circular exchange of money in the economy which leads to its smooth functioning (Hein and  Stockhammer, 2011, p.59). Keynesian economic policies state that the aggregate demand in the economy could be boosted by raising government expenditures. The increase in government spending would encourage private investment. This is supported by a rise in investment savings (IS). Thus the IS curve would shift from IS1 to IS2 as shown below. The IS-LM curve shown below is interpreted as follows. Due to a shift in the IS curve, the point of general equilibrium with the LM (liquidity preference and money supply) curve also shifts upward. This gives rise to a rise in interest rates from i1 to i2 as shown in the graph. Also, the liquidity level of the economy enhances due to rising in money supply from Y1 to Y2. After the great depression in 1929 and during the post world war period from 1945, the economy of the UK experienced unprecedented growth. The economic prosperity in the UK during this period of reconstruction and industrialization led to the emergence of the golden age which prevailed from 1945b to 1970s (Rollings and Middleton, 2002, p.5). This could be attributed to Keynesian economic policies. During the golden age, the policymakers banked on the underlying theories of Keynesian economics and increased government sp ending. The policymakers embraced government deficits and reduced government taxes in order to boost the income level and employment rates in the economy of the UK. Thus the government spending was increased in order to boost the productivity and demand of the economy in the UK (Tobin, 1989, p.27). The growth rate of GDP and per- capita income level increased rapidly. This was comparatively much higher with respect to the earlier phases of the economy. The income- level per person grew at the rate of 3.4% in the 1960s as compared to 2% in 1950s. The total productivity of labor increased doubly as compared to earlier stages in the economy. As compared to the last century, the GDP growth rates were also double. The trade volumes increased eight times as compared to the period before the World War. The growth of industries, total factor productivity, growth in the volume of trade and increase in capital stock led to booming conditions in the economy of the UK (King, 2003, p.60). Thus t he golden age during the period of 1945 to mid-1970s showed the effectiveness of Keynesian economic policies. The end of the Golden Age The golden age which existed in developed countries like the UK in the post world war period came to an end during the later stages of 1970.  

Evading Intrusion Detection Systems Essay Example for Free

Evading Intrusion Detection Systems Essay As information technology advances its demand and reliance has increase has increased resulting in numerous growths in development and usage of web site. This technology has resulted to be very beneficial to organizational and institutional prosperity for example world of business has benefited a lot from the so called e-commerce. These benefits have on the other hand attracted exploitation of the web site supporting them. Growth in occurrence of exploitation of data sites which handle crucial organizational information have resulted to a major concern over their security and management of risks associated. This concern has resulted to usage of prevention system such as â€Å"Web Application Firewall, intrusion prevention systems and intrusion detection systems† (Vittie, 2007 pp. 1). Intrusions detection systems are protective systems which detect identify and isolate exploitation of computer systems. According to Newsham 1998, intrusion detection is a vital element of computer systems security system which complements other protection machineries. â€Å"By providing information to site administration, ID allows not only for the detection of attacks explicitly addressed by other security components (such as firewalls and services wrappers) but also attempts to provide notification of new attacks unforeseen by other components† (Newsham, 1998 para. 3). They are also very important as they provide organization with forensic information enabling detection of origination of attacks. This can help in following of attackers and make the answerable for their malicious actions. Working of Intrusion Detective Systems (IDS) is geared toward monitoring network of any attackers. In this operation it is hindered by network skilled attackers who are working day and night to be able to counter these systems and continue with their malicious damages. Exploitation in this case can continue in case where IDS may be short of complete scrutiny for the all of behavior perpetuated by a certain protocol. A good example to this is a case where attacker of IDS that is unable to reassemble Internet Protocol (IP) fragment through deliberate â€Å"†¦transmission of attack traffic in fragments rather than complete IP datagrams† (Kreibich, 2001). Internet Protocol end systems are assumed to conduct fragment reassembly and incase of this scenario, the attacker may accomplish intended mission without being noticed by IDS since it may be unable to reconstruct entire datagrams. Evading Intrusion Detection Systems using fragmentation and small packet technique can be said to be an evasion technique designed to confuse detection by IDS. Operations of fragment and small packet are based on ensuring attack payload splits into numerous small packets making IDS to gather the packet steam so as to identify the attack. This is possible through fragmenting the small packets but making of packets with minute payload can as well function. Although the small packet may a not evade any IDS which looks like packet steams, they can be designed to confuse reassembly as well as detection. Following deployment of IDS in 90s evasion, discovery of evasion followed. Evasion this time was â€Å"segmenting a signature into multiple packets, sometimes delaying second part of signature to trigger a network IDS time-out† (Gorton Champion, n. d. pp 2). Since 1997, several way of evading IDS which largely depended on using UNIX command shell potentialities. Later, hackers were able to use shell evasion design for example â€Å"mimicking ROT-13 ‘encryption’ using the TR command† (Gorton Champion, n. d. pp 2). Overlapping fragments has also been in use in that numerous packets with Internet Protocol or Transmission Control Protocol modified to overlap. Protocol violation uses similar technique as overlapping fragment in attempt to evade IDS through deliberate violation of Internet Protocol. Other evading Intrusion Detection Systems are Denial of Service and Inserting Traffic at the Intrusion Detection Systems. The inserted traffics are modified packet which are identified by IDS by computer may not detects becoming the main target. While Denial Service is a system modified to evade detection through overpowering Intrusion Detection System. This is possible through exploiting attacking element by use of large codification. â€Å"In 1999, Ptacek and Newsham demonstrated that commercial Intrusion detection systems had fundamentals flaws at handling the IP and TCP protocols which allowed attacker to trick them into incorrectly reconstructing sessions containing an attack† (Gorton Champion, n. d. pp 4). These two researchers in this field identified that several ways which IDS could not be able to detect invasion through being tricked and lack to attack invasion capable to detect. This was followed by development of programs by Dug Song guided by techniques explained by Ptacek and Newsham. This program is called fragrouter and later developed to fragroute. Attack of server through Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), â€Å"†¦there are fewer possibility for application evasion than in shell version. If the signature is flawed, an attacker can alter non-essential parts of the attack and avoid the signature,† (Gorton Champion, n. d. pp 4). To counter this inefficiency other forms of IDS were developed these are Mendax and Whisker written by Kang’s and Puppy respectively. In conclusion, evading Intrusion Detective System is still an active field. As ways to counter their malicious behaviors are developed hackers are busy advancing their attacks. This means future and survival of IDS in protecting web site is dependent to continued research in this field. Reference: Vittie, Lori Mac (2007): XSS Evasion—Trying to hide in the all-concealing torchlight; Retrieved on 12th December 2008 from; http://www. f5. com/pdf/white-papers/xss-evasion-wp. pdf Newsham Timothy N. (1998): Insertion, Evasion, and Denial of Service: Eluding Network Intrusion Detection. Retrieved on 12th December 2008 from; http://insecure. org/stf/secnet_ids/secnet_ids. html. Kreibich, Christian (2001): Network Intrusion Detection: Evasion, Traffic Normalization, and End-to-End Protocol Semantics. Retrieved on 12th December 2008 from; http://www. icir. org/vern/papers/norm-usenix-sec-01. pdf Gorton A. Samuel Champion Terrence G. (n. d): Combining Evasion Techniques to Avoid Network Intrusion Detection Systems. Retrieved on 12th December 2008 from; http://www. skaion. com/research/tgc-rsd-raid. pdf

History of Chemotherapy and Cancer Treatment Research

History of Chemotherapy and Cancer Treatment Research An Early Victory A few doors from Freireichs office at the NCI, Min Chiu Li and Roy Hertz had been studying choriocarcinoma, a cancer of the placenta, which often metastasizes rapidly into the lung and the brain. Choriocarcinoma cells secrete a hormone called choriogonadotropin. The level of that hormone, also called the hcg level, was used by Li to track the course of the cancer as it responded to the therapy. In 1956, a young woman called Ethel Longoria suffered from choriocarcinoma that had metastasized to her lungs. Her tumors had begun to bleed into the linings of her lungs. Li and Hertz stabilized her and then treated her with methotrexate. After the first dose, when the doctors left for the night, they didnt expect that theyd find her in rounds the next morning. But she was alive. After four rounds of therapies, her tumor disappeared; the chest X-ray improved; and the hcg level rapidly plummeted toward zero. The tumors had actually vanished with chemotherapy. The trouble was the hcg level had not gone all the way to zero. Although the tumor seemed to have vanished, Li continued to treat her with chemotherapy based on her elevated hCG levels. The NCI administration disapproved, feeling that Li was experimenting on his patients, and fired him in July 1957. However, Li was ultimately proven to be right. Those patients whose chemotherapy were stopped once the visible tumors disappeared inevitably relapsed, while those who continued the treatment until their hcg levels had gone to zero were cured. Li had stumbled on a fundamental principle of oncology: Cancer needed to be systemically treated long after every visible sign of it had vanished. Mice and Men Adding vincristine to the arsenal of chemotherapy drugs had put the researchers at the NCI in a bind. It would take forever for the consortium to finish its trials because of the large number of permutations and combinations of drugs needed to be tested. Howard Skipper, a scientist from Alabama, provided Frei and Freireich a way out of the impasse. Skipper, who called himself a mouse doctor, was an outsider to the NCI. He had tested chemotherapy drugs in mice with leukemia, lymphomas and solid tumors as models for human cancers and came up with two pivotal findings: Chemotherapy kills a fixed percentage of cancer cells per treatment. The patients would need to be treated multiple times to get the compounded iterative effect; and Chemotherapy drugs are more effective when given in combination to optimize cancer killing capacity while minimizing drug resistance and side effects. Freireich and Frei were now ready to tackle a four-drug regimen known as VAMP, with each letter standing for one drug. VAMP When Frei and Freireich presented their preliminary plan for VAMP to the Acute Leukemia Group B (ALGB) at a national meeting on blood cancers, the audience hesitated. The group refused to sponsor VAMP until the many other trials had been completed. But Frei Came up with a compromise: VAMP would be studied at the NCI, outside the purview of the ALGB. The VAMP trial was launched in 1961. At the end of three intensively painful weeks, the leukemia cells went into remission. The remissions persisted for weeks, exceeding everyones expectation at the NCI. A few weeks later, the NCI sent another small cohort of patients to try VAMP. Once again, after the initial catastrophic dip, the leukemia vanished. The remissions were reliable and durable. In the fall of 1963, some children in remission came back to the clinic with minor neurological complaints such as headaches, numbness, and seizures. To investigate the possibility of cancer cells invading the brain, Frei and Freireich examined the childrens spinal fluid, and confirmed that leukemia cells were colonizing the brain. The neurological complaints were early signs of a more serious devastation. Eventually all the children came back with neurological complaints went into coma. It was a consequence of the bodys own defense system. The blood-brain barrier had kept VAMP out of the central nervous system, allowing the leukemia cells to colonize the one place that is unreachable by chemotherapy. But not all children had relapsed and died. About 5 percent of the treated children never relapsed with leukemia in the central nervous system. They remained in remission not just for weeks or months, but for years. An Anatomists Tumor In 1832, an English anatomist named Thomas Hodgkin (1798-1866) found a strange systemic disease among a series of cadavers. The disease was characterized by a peculiar enlargement of lymph glands. He wrote up the case of seven such cadavers and presented it to the Medical and Chirurgical Society. It was received with little enthusiasm. Soon after publishing his paper, Hodgkin drift away from medicine, and his anatomical studies slowly came to a halt. Hodgkins disease is a cancer of the lymph glands. The tumor moves from one contiguous node to another. It is a local disease on the verge of transforming into a systemic one. In 1898, an Austrian pathologist named Carl Sternberg discovered the cancerous lymph cells when looking through a microscope at a patients glands. Henry Kaplan, a professor of radiology at Stanford wanted to use radiation to treat human cancers. He knew radiation could treat solid tumors could be treated with radiation, but the outer shell of the cancer needed to be penetrated deep enough to kill cancer cells. A linear accelerator (linac) with its sharp, dense beam would be ideal for that purpose. In 1953, he persuaded Standford to tailor-make a linac for the hospital. With the linac in operation, Kaplan contemplated on his cancer target. Since Linac could only focus on local sites, his natural target was Hodgkins disease, a predictable local tumor. Kaplan wanted to prove that he could improve relapse-free survival by using a technique called extended field radiation (EFR). Under EFR, the X-rays are delivered to an entire area of lymph notes rather than to a single swollen node. In 1962, Kaplan conducted a trial. The result showed that EFR had significantly reduced the relapse rate of Hodgkins disease. In 1964, he did another trial with a larger field of radiation on a limited cohort of patients with tumors in just a few contiguous lymph nodes. The result showed even greater relapse-free intervals, stretching out into years. Wasnt the logic of extended field radiation similar to radical surgery -carving out larger and larger areas for treatment? Why did Kaplan succeed where others had failed? Kaplan was successful because he restricted radiotherapy to patients with early stage local cancers. Those are the natural disease for radiotherapy. Advanced-stage cancers are inherently different and would require other forms of treatment. An Army on the March In 1963 at the NCI Clinical Center in Bethesda, a group of researchers, including Zubrod, George Canellos, Frei, Freireich, and Vincent DeVita were making a list of cytotoxic drugs on one side of a blackboard. On the other side was a list of new cancers they want to target breast, ovarian, lymphomas, lung cancers. Connecting between the two lists were lines matching combinations of drugs to cancers. One question that came to their mind was whether chemotherapy could ever cure patients with any advanced cancers. The only way to answer that generic question was to direct the growing army of drugs against other cancers. They knew leukemia responded to combination chemotherapy. If another kind of cancer also responded to that strategy, then combination chemotherapy might cure all cancers. To test the principle, they focused on Hodgkins disease-a cancer that was both solid and liquid, a stepping-stone between leukemia and, say, breast cancer or lung cancer. Kaplan had proved that radiation therapy can cure local forms of Hodgkins disease. If they could prove that combination chemotherapy can cure metastatic Hodgkins disease, then the equation would be fully solved. In 1964, DeVita led the test of combination chemotherapy for metastatic Hodgkins disease. He combined four drugs-nitrogen mustard, oncovin, prednisone, and procarbasine into a highly toxic cocktail called MOPP. The nausea that accompanied the therapy was devastating. The toxic cocktail had weakened the immune system allowing pneumocystis carinii (PCP), a rare form of pneumonia, to sprout up. The therapy had caused permanent sterility in men and some women. The result of the study was remarkable. At the end of six months, 35 of the 43 patients had a complete remission. The most disturbing side effect would emerge a decade later. Several patients, cured of Hodgkins disease, would relapse with a second cancer, typically a drug-resistant leukemia caused by the prior MOPP therapy. *** In May 1968, Frei and Freireichs VAMP combination chemo had cured most of the children with leukemia in their bone marrow, but not the leukemia that had spread to their brain. A 36-year-old oncologist name Donald Pinkel thought that VAMP had not been intensive enough. Pinkel, a protà ©gà © of Farbers, had been recruited from Boston to start the leukemia program at St. Judess Hospital in Memphis. He determined to push the logic of combination chemotherapy to its limit with four crucial innovations: To use combinations of combinations of drugs mixed and matched together for maximum effect; To instill chemotherapy directly into the nervous system via the spinal cord; To kill residual cells in the brain by high-dose radiation; and To continue chemotherapy for month after month, even after the cancer seemed to have disappeared. The treatment protocol started with the standard chemotherapy drugs given in rapid-fire succession. The spinal canal was injected with methotrexate at defined intervals. The brain was irradiated with high doses of X-rays. The treatment lasted up to 30 months. It was an all-out combat. In July 1968, the St. Judes team published its results: Twenty-seven out of the thirty-one treated had a complete remission. Ten had never relapsed. The median time to relapse had increased to five years. By 1979, 278 patients had completed their chemotherapy. About 20 percent had relapsed, 80 percent was still in complete remission, disease free, after chemotherapy. The Cart and the House By the fall of 1968, the successes of the trials in Bethesda and in Memphis shifted the landscape of cancer therapy. The success of chemotherapy for both leukemia and Hodgkins disease made it seem like a unifying solution for cancer. In Boston, Farber celebrated the news by throwing a public party. He recast the occasion as the symbolic twenty-first birthday of Jimmy. Conspicuously missing from the guest list was the original Jimmy himself-Einar Gustafson. The real Jimmy had returned to a private life in Maine, where he now lived with his wife and three kids. As clinical oncologists were offering their unifying solution for cancer, cancer scientists were offering its unifying cause: viruses. The grandfather of this theory was Peyton Rous, a chicken virologist at the Rockefeller Institute in New York. In 1911, Rous discovered that a malignant tumor growing on a chicken could be transferred to another chicken by exposing the healthy bird to a filtrate derived from the tumor cells. He concluded that the cancer was transmitted by a virus. This virus is now known as the Rous sarcoma virus, or RSV. This discovery had set off a frantic search for more cancer viruses. In 1958, an Irish surgeon named Denis Burkitt discovered an aggressive form of lymphoma among children in Africa. Analyzing the cancer cells from these children, two British virologists discovered a human virus inside them. The new virus was named Epstein-Barr virus or EBV. Because viral diseases were potentially preventable, the NCI inaugurated a Special Virus Cancer Program in the early 1960s to systematically hunt for human cancer viruses. The cancer virus theory needed a deeper explanation: how might viruses cause a cell to become malignant? The success of cytotoxic chemotherapy raised a fundamental question: how would the therapy, the cure, connect with the cause of the cancer? As Kenneth Endicott, the NCI director, acknowledged in 1963: The program directed by the National Cancer Institute has been derided as one that puts the cart before the horse by searching for a cure before knowing the cause. But for Mary Lasker, this cart would have to drag the horse.

Investegation Of Megnetic Fields :: essays research papers

The Investigation of Magnetic Fields. Introduction: We already know that the magnets have a magnetic field around them, which allows them to attract magnetic elements like iron. In this lab the magnetic field of a magnet will be investigated. By putting a thin layer of iron filings on the peace of plastic under which will be a magnet bar, we will be able to see this field. Purpose: To see the patterns of a magnetic field of a single magnet and fields of two magnets when they are put together in different positions. Materials: Page #369 in the textbook. Observations:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Discussion: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A magnetic field is a field which is created by a magnetic substance, the field can either repel or attract. The iron filings showed the magnetic field lines because they are a magnetic substance and are attracted, (or) repelled by magnets. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a) Usually the denser the magnetic field is, the stronger the magnetic field is, because the ends of the magnet, where the lines that represent the magnetic field are closest together, the magnetic field is strongest and where the this lines are farther apart, the magnetic field is weaker. B) The strongest point of a magnetic field is on poles of a magnet, the weakest point is in the middle between the two poles. That is because at the poles of the magnet there is only one pole either north or south and in the middle there are both of them and the cancel each other out. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With different poles the filings make a circular shaped around the two poles and they connect between them, that shows that two different poles attract each other . with like poles the filings circle away from each other and form a diamond shape over the two poles. That shows that two like poles repel each other.

Contemporary Significance of the Greek Views of Paideia :: Philosophy

Contemporary Significance of the Greek Views of Paideia ABSTRACT: We argue that there are three basic views of paideia in ancient Greece. After briefly discussing them, we turn our attention to the contemporary situation. We try to show that the dialogical or Socratic view of paideia can contribute toward a deeper understanding of the contemporary problem of multiculturalism. In this article we will argue first that there are three basic views of paideia in ancient Greece (I). Then after making a brief overview of their fate in the later history (II), we will turn our attention to our contemporary situation and try to show that it is the dialogical or Socratic view of paideia which can contribute to a deeper understanding of the contemporary problem of multiculturalism (III). I. The three basic views of Greek paideia are all connected with the concept of truth and the relation of man to it. I call these views "basic", simply because I consider the man's "transcendental" relationship to truth (which includes the denial of this relationship) fundamental for our understanding of paideia, especially in ancient Greece after Parmenides. 1) The authoritarian view is found in the so-called Presocratic thinkers, such as Parmenides and Heracleitus. They assert the existence of absolute eternal truth that can be grasped intuitively and expressed verbally by a few wise men (sophoi). Even though they disagree and dispute each other on the content of truth, they all share in the esoteric view of truth. Just as Being is separated from the realm of appearance by Parmenides, so the wise man who alone can discern Being is clearly distinguished from the common crowd who cannot move beyond the realm of appearance. Or according to Heracleitus only the wise man can give ears to the eternal Logos amid the ever-changing flow of the world; whereas fools are compared with swine that are content with mud. This view gives the wise the authority to teach Truth ex cathedra. 2) The relativistic view of the Sophists, especially of Protagoras and Gorgias, is more "democratic". We should not forget that the Sophists flourished especially in democratic Athens as testified among others by the friendship between Protagoras and Pericles, the greatest statesman of democratic Athens. Both Protagoras and Gorgias criticized and ridiculed the Parmenidean concept of Being. The famous words of Protagoras, "man is the measure of all things" should be interpreted in this light.

Reader Response to Wells’ The Time Machine :: Time Machine

Reader Response to Wells’ The Time Machine As a Christian, I don't personally believe in evolution in general; I don't think humans evolved from a lower life form and I don't think we will be here for another 800,000 years to evolve into anything else. But the logical scientist in me is nonetheless intrigued at the possibilities presented in The Time Machine. So what would happen to the human race a few hundred millennia from now? Would it divide into two distinct races that live separately from one another as Wells describes? I personally don't think this would happen. The human race seems to have a stubborn quality about it -- anytime there is a challenge or obstacle to face, we tend to try to overcome it in one way or another. I remember reading somewhere recently (I can't remember where) that humans have a natural tendency to resist captivity or oppression. This is why slavery is never permenent, and the history of man is littered with uprisings and revolts. This line of thinking begs the question: if indeed the Morlocks were forced underground at one point or another, why did they stay there? Even if they accepted their new environment without question, they were going to run out of food eventually -- no sun means no plants or vegetables, correct? This is where the Time Traveler presumes that the Morlocks began to feed on the Eloi out of necessity. But wouldn't the Morlocks just return to the surface at this point? Why would they stay underground if their only food was on the surface? It doesn't seem to make sense. Nevertheless, the year 802,701 as envisioned by Wells is fascinating. I have always loved good stories, especially imaginative ones, and I must admit that The Time Machine has become one of my favorite works of literature. Along these same lines, I have to agree with what Michael wrote in the first part of his journal entry. I, too, am not a fan of overanalyzing works of literature. For me good stories are just that -- stories. Don't get me wrong, there are many cases where looking past the surface of a book is appropriate -- for example Animal Farm is obviously allegory, and The Jungle by Upton Sinclair is not so obviously a book promoting socialism. But sometimes I think that critics are digging too deep into literature and finding things that just aren't there, nor did the author intend for them to be there.

Conflict Resolution and Mediation Essay

be differences in opinions which inevitably lead to disagreements. Conflict exists in families, in the workplace, in churches and schools, in sports, between neighbors and between countries. Conflict is defined as â€Å"an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals†. (Wilmot and Hocker, 2001, p. 11). When there are differences in individual values, motivations, ideas and perceptions, conflicts arise. How individuals deal with conflict depends on personal history, family background and other influences over one’s lifetime. Gender as well as culture influence behavior and perceptions and play an important role in conflict resolution. Traditionally, conflict has been viewed as a destructive force which was best handled by avoiding, ignoring, or silencing it. There is a growing body of literature on the benefits of effective conflict management. Healthy conflict is now viewed as a necessary ingredient in organizational success. The ability to deal effectively with conflict is critical to creating productive relationships. Although most people continue to view conflict negatively, it is a necessary ingredient to creativity and results in healthier relationships. There are two kinds of conflict, constructive and destructive. Constructive conflict should be encouraged because it leads to creative thinking and growth. It results in high performing organizations and to enhanced relationships. Destructive conflict should be eliminated or dealt with immediately. It is costly and does not promote positive personal or organizational development. Communication is a key ingredient in conflict resolution. There are various tools available to resolve conflict. They include legal remedies, arbitration as well as mediation. Conflict resolution skills are learned and when applied, result in improved relationships. Defining Conflict There is an element of conflict in almost all relationships. Conflict has also been defined as â€Å"a social problem in which two or more persons, families, parties, communities, or districts are in disagreement with each other† ( Dzurgba, 2006). It occurs on an intrapersonal as well as an interpersonal level. If left unmanaged, conflict can lead to hostility, anger, alienation, war, inefficiency, expensive mistakes, legal battles as well as physical violence. There are five main conflict resolution styles  that individuals use depending on the situation. They are: Avoiding the Conflict – By avoiding the conflict, one or more parties pretend there is no problem. Some examples of avoiding include pretending nothing is wrong, shutting down or stonewalling. Accommodating – One party agrees to accommodate the other’s request usually for the sake of keeping the peace. This can lead to resentment. Competitive – One party stands his/her ground and competes to secure a win. In the short run, one party wins, but can lead to serious issues long term. Compromising – Both parties willingly enter into a negotiation where each gets something out of the other, but neither gets everything they want. Usually the parties negotiate on the larger issues where they have common ground and let go of minor issues. Collaboration – Both parties enter into meaningful negotiations towards a win-win solution. This style takes the most courage and involves listening to the other party and thinking creatively to resolve the problem w ithout compromising. This is the most successful and admired and respected style. Conflict Resolution Conflict resolution and mediation leads to the reduction of the conflict. Effectively addressing conflict leads to an improvement of relationships and to greater organizational and personal effectiveness. Conflict resolution entails managing stress, managing anger and managing face. When managed well, conflict can be a catalyst for innovation and creativity, leading to organizational learning. Conflict provides an opportunity for the best ideas to be shared to improve a situation or a process. Left unmanaged, conflict can have expensive legal consequences as others seek litigation to resolve the conflict. In organizations, it can lead to employee dissatisfaction, expensive turnover, decreased productivity and expensive errors. In families, unmanaged conflict can lead to violence, family dysfunction and divorce. Types of Conflict There are five types of conflicts, namely relationship, data, interest, structural and value. Relationship Conflicts Relationship conflicts are personal and result from misperceptions,  miscommunication, stereotypes, negative behavior and rumors. It affects the relationship between two people, but can impact others within the team. Work environments consist of employees from diverse backgrounds with very different value systems. There are cultural, gender and generational differences which contribute to relationship conflicts. As a result, miscommunication occurs because of differences in meaning, norms of communication and behavioral expectations. What is perceived as an ordinary conversation in one culture may be considered rude and intrusive by another culture. Spouses often have relationship conflicts that lead to divorce if unresolved. Data Conflicts Data conflicts often occur when two or more individuals are interpreting data differently. This can lead to wrong decisions, but can also lead to major disagreements. The budget conflicts which have let to the sequestration are an example of data conflicts. The Republicans and the Democrats are interpreting the budget numbers differently and coming to very different conclusions regarding what the numbers mean. As a result, they cannot agree on a budget. Interest Conflicts Interest conflicts occur when one person is trying to take advantage of another person. This may happen if an employee starts a company that provides the same services as his/her employer. Interest conflicts occur when the boss is dating an employee because that may introduce favoritism and may negatively impact other employees. Structural Conflicts A structural conflict is created by the organization. It is not subjective and is not created by people’s viewpoints or perceptions, but rather by limited resources or changes that the people involved have very little control over. An example of a structural conflict is a company that has customers across the world, but only has a customer service center in Ohio. The sales force would like to have all customers served promptly regardless of location, but the service center has regular hours. The company either  has to create 24 hour shifts to accommodate its customers or open centers in other countries. Value Conflicts Value conflicts are differences in personal beliefs, preferences or priorities. This occurs between two people or within groups of people. Cultural differences usual result in different value systems which can lead to conflict. Examples of value conflicts in interpersonal relations can be a person who likes meat verses someone who is vegetarian, or, a liberal Democrat verses a conservative Republican. Each individual develops a value system based on culture, personality and the society they grow up in. There is no right or wrong in value systems, just a difference in opinion. Value conflicts are subjective because they are based on how people â€Å"feel† about each other or the situation. They are very difficult to effectively resolve. Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Power Power plays a critical role in interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts and disputes. There are many forms of power. The role of power in a conflict intensifies as the balance of power shifts. In the work environment, the power imbalance often exacerbates a conflict and often leads to resentment or anger. Power imbalance changes the communication styles used by the parties in a conflict. In conflict or dispute, one or more types of power may be used by the parties in the attempt to resolve the conflict. People in a high power position may not use their power to influence a decision out of guilt. In a conflict, one party usually possesses more power than the other. Real or perceived power imbalances make it difficult to resolve a conflict to everyone’s satisfaction. Power can be structural or personal. The extent to which one party can impose their will on another affects how the dispute is resolved. Power currency depends on the value placed on particular resources by the oth er party in the relationship. If one has what others need, they are in a powerful position and have more power currency. As needs change, the power currency may be more of less valuable. Just like actual currency, the value of the currency fluctuates and is situational. Interpersonal power currencies are: 1. Resource control: Often associated with a position within an organization and can include financial, information, equipment and rules and regulations. When a citizen visits the social security office to get disability benefits, the government holds the power for the decision to approve or not approve the benefits. The citizen has very little power and the government has the resources. 2. Interpersonal linkages: This is associated with someone’s position in the larger system. This is highly dependent on â€Å"who you know† and the relationships one has to make things happen. The Secretary of State is in a position to resolve the Mid-east conflict based on the interpersonal linkages he/she has with both Israel and Egypt. 3. Communication skills: Listening skills, leadership skills and the ability to effectively communicate is a power currency. Preachers have the ability to communicate a message to their congregation and get them to rally around a particular issue. They are often called upon to mediate disputes because of their ability to listen, be empathetic to both parties and effectively communicate both viewpoints and negotiate a resolution. 4. Expertise skills: When one has a special skill or knowledge that others find valuable, he is in a position of influence. A pilot, a surgeon or a car mechanic all possess special skills that put them in power positions during certain disputes. Power imbalances disproportionally benefit the powerful party. Power generally falls into three categories, designated power, distributive power and integrative power. Designated power is often referred to as positional power and is as a result of a position or office held. A parent, manager, teacher or policeman has power that comes from their position. Distributive power is the â€Å"power over or against the other party† (Wilmot & Hocker, 2001, p. 103). Integrative or â€Å"both/and† power comes from two parties working together to achieve a mu tually beneficial goal. This power differential has a significant impact on the substance and the process to resolve the conflict. When applied appropriately â€Å"constructive use of power solves problems, enhances relationships, and balances power† (Wilmot & Hocker, 2011, p. 103). Forgiveness and Reconciliation There is a growing body of literature on forgiveness and reconciliation. Disparate fields such as social and developmental psychology, anthropology,  political sciences, religion and legal studies have all been conducting research on forgiveness and reconciliation. There are many definitions of forgiveness. Forgiveness and reconciliation often follow other efforts to resolve a conflict and heal the relationship. As such, forgiveness is highly personal and emotional. Kornfield defined it as follows: â€Å"Forgiveness is the heart’s capacity to release its grasp on the pains of the past and free itself to go on† (Kornfield, 2001, p.236). As shown in Figure 1, there is a flow of events that lead to reconciliation. The Forgiveness & Reconciliation Cycle for Effective Conflict Resolution Figure 1 Forgiveness is a key ingredient essential for reconciliation and conflict resolution. It is recognized in religion and social science literature as an important element in healing conflicts. For healing to occur and normal trusting relationships to be formed, both sides need to stop blaming each other and move past the conflict. An apology is a catalyst and a key ingredient leading to forgiveness and reconciliation, and ultimately to conflict resolution. While conflict resolution is focused on resolving substantive issues in a dispute, reconciliation focuses on addressing personal and relational issues and restoring relationships. William Faulkner was quoted by journalist Bill Moyers as saying â€Å"Forgiveness is giving up the idea of a better past† (Wilmot and Hocker, 2011, p. 297). Forgiveness is concerned with healing the hurt, disappointments and sins of the past, and improving relationships in the future. Mediation and Organizational Conflict Resolution A mediator is defined as â€Å"a neutral third party who has no decision-making power regarding the outcome of the mediation† (Abigail & Cahn, 2011, p. 197). The advantages of mediation are: 1. Cost – Mediation is much less expensive than the alternative of either having the situation go unresolved or resolve legally 2. Flexibility – Mediation can be conducted anywhere as long as it is neutral ground. 3. Informal – It can be adapted to accommodate cultural, personal, structural and other differences. 4. Effectiveness –  Mediated solutions tend to last because the parties come to a mutually agreed solution. 5. Preserves Relationships – Parties tend to have stronger long term relationships because they feel they were heard and have the other’s commitment. Effective organizations have mediation as part of the conflict resolution process. This is an effective way to resolve conflicts while both parties maintain control and ownership of t he issues. Conclusion Effective conflict resolution is important to building productive relationships. The importance of conflict resolution has been reinforced by the disparate fields focused on studying the subject. Organizations must provide the right structure for effective conflict resolution to be effective. Effective conflict resolution requires a health balance of power and promotes a health organizational culture. When all stakeholders have a voice, decision making is enhanced, engagement improves, and innovation increases. Maintaining a balance of power should be a high priority for any organization to be competitive and reach maximum productivity. Diversity is a consideration when creating conflict resolution processes. Gender, ethnicity and culture have to be considered to create an effective process. Although power is complex and maintaining a balance of power is fraught with difficulty, process design, effective communication, and a culture that encourages open dialogue will ensure that all parties effectively negotiate in their own interest to bring about fair outcomes. Archbishop Desmond Tutu who chaired the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) said that â€Å"there can be no future without forgiveness†. Forgiveness is an intrapersonal as well as an interpersonal activity. Forgiving someone can be done with or without the other person’s consent, making it a relatively easy process intrapersonal. It is much more complicated interpersonally since it requires another party to either apologize, or accept an apology and forgive. As research is finding, â€Å"Apology and forgiveness have the potential to foster reconciliation and encourage peaceful coexistence among groups and nations† (Asby et al, 2010, p. 25). Conflict should be treated as an essential ingredient for healthy relationships both at home and at work. In health care organizations such as MaineGeneral Health, empowering employees with skills to handle conflict was critical to creating a culture  where employees felt comfortable speaking up (Bullock, 2011, p. 82). By speaking up, the hospital was able to avoid medical errors. References Abigail, R. A.., & Cahn, D. D. (2011). Managing conflict through communication. 4th Ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN: 9780205685561 Ashy, M., Mercurio, A. E., & Malley-Morrison, K. (2010, March). Apology, forgiveness, and reconciliation: An ecological world view. Individual Differences Research 8 (1), 17-26 http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2010-05622-003&site=ehost-live Bullock, S. (2011, July/August). Empowering staff with communication. Healthcare Executive 26 (4), 80-82 http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/875635837?accountid=28180 Chetkow-Yanoov, B. (1997). Social work approaches to conflict resolution: Making fighting obsolete. Binghampton, NY: Haworth. Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. T. (Eds). (2006). Handbook of conflict resolution (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dingwall, R., & Miller, G. (2002). Lessons from brief therapy? Some interactional suggestions for family mediators. Conflict Resolution Quar terly, 19, 269-287. Dubler, N. N., & Liebman, C. B. (2004). Bioethics mediation: A guide to shaping shared solutions. New York: United Hospital Fund. Eddy, W. A. (2003). High conflict personalities: Understanding and resolving their costly disputes. San Diego, CA: William A. Eddy. Eller, J. (2004). Effective group facilitation in education: How to energize meetings and manage difficult groups. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lee, J. (2010, July). Perceived power imbalance and customer dissatisfaction. Service Industries Journal doi:10.1080/02642060802298384 30 (7), 1113-1137 http://www.tandfonline.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/doi/abs/10.1080/02642060802298384 Maroney, T. A. (2009). Unlearning fear of out-group others. Law and Contemporary Problems Journal. 72(2), 83-88. Sloan, W. M. (2011, March). What did you say? Curtail conflict with effective communication. Education Update 53 (3), 3-5 http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=58834574&site=ehos t-live Wilmot, W., & Hocker, J.